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The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) represents a vast and sophisticated tapestry of intellectual traditions, pedagogical models, and ecological wisdom that has evolved over millennia. This paper undertakes a literature-based review to critically examine the conceptual, historical, and pedagogical dimensions of IKS, with a particular focus on its contemporary relevance and research potential. One key area identified is the need for the systematic documentation and critical edition of regional and vernacular texts that remain largely unpublished or untranslated (Chattopadhyaya, 1986). Alongside this, the paper explores indigenous theories of knowledge (pramāṇa) and their compatibility with modern epistemological frameworks, offering insights into how Indian thought structures inquiry and validation (Sarukkai, 2012). The review also calls attention to historically marginalized voices—especially women, Dalits, and tribal communities—whose contributions to IKS remain underrepresented in mainstream narratives (Sharma, 2002; Rao, 2018).The study investigates the adaptability of traditional pedagogies such as the guru–śiṣyaparamparā and dialogic learning methods (sañvāda) within contemporary education systems, particularly in light of reforms like the National Education Policy 2020 (Joshi &Patil, 2020). The ecological and sustainability-oriented aspects of IKS are also examined, including traditional practices in agriculture, water management, and biodiversity conservation (Gupta, 2019). Furthermore, the role of digital and open-access platforms in preserving and disseminating indigenous knowledge is underscored as a vital step toward global engagement and future scholarship (Srinivas, 2021). By advocating for an interdisciplinary, inclusive, and ethically grounded approach, the paper positions IKS not as a relic of the past, but as a living, evolving framework with profound implications for education, sustainability, and knowledge systems worldwide.
1. Introduction
The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) encompasses a vast and diverse body of indigenous knowledge traditions, philosophical schools, pedagogical practices, and scientific contributions that have evolved over millennia. Rooted in deeply reflective epistemologies and spiritual cosmologies, IKS represents a holistic worldview where education is intrinsically linked to the moral, intellectual, ecological, and spiritual dimensions of human life. In the face of globalization and the dominance of Western epistemologies in contemporary academic discourse, there has been a growing recognition of the need to re-examine and revive indigenous knowledge systems, particularly in the context of education and pedagogy. This is evident in recent policy frameworks such as India’s National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which explicitly calls for the integration of IKS into curricula to create an education system that is rooted in Indian ethos while being future-ready.1.1 Objectives of the Review
The primary objective of this review is to critically examine the scholarly discourse surrounding the Indian Knowledge System and its educational methodologies, with a particular emphasis on indigenous pedagogies. Specifically, the review aims to:
Examine the challenges, limitations, and critiques associated with the re-integration of IKS into formal academic systems.
Highlight gaps in the existing literature and propose future directions for research in this domain.
In doing so, the paper hopes to contribute to a nuanced understanding of how indigenous pedagogical traditions can inform, enrich, and transform modern educational paradigms.
Rationale and Relevance of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS)
The rationale for revisiting and reviewing the Indian Knowledge System is both intellectual and practical. At the intellectual level, IKS represents one of the world’s most enduring civilizational knowledge frameworks, with rich contributions to science, philosophy, linguistics, medicine, arts, and social thought. These traditions evolved not only in response to empirical realities but also in alignment with metaphysical and ethical inquiries that transcended disciplinary boundaries (Rao, 2012; Mukherjee, 2020).
At the practical level, the modern education system in India—largely shaped by colonial legacies—has often been critiqued for alienating learners from their cultural roots and for its limited engagement with context-sensitive knowledge. As scholars like Kumar (2005) and Mahapatra (2018) argue, indigenous pedagogies offer learner-centric, experiential, and value-oriented modes of instruction that can complement contemporary education, particularly in addressing issues of sustainability, social justice, and cultural literacy.
1.2 Scope and Methodology of the Literature Review
This review adopts a qualitative, narrative approach to synthesizing existing academic literature on IKS and indigenous pedagogies. The scope is intentionally broad, spanning disciplines such as history, education, philosophy, anthropology, and cultural studies. Key sources include peer-reviewed journal articles, historical texts, policy documents (especially NEP 2020), monographs by leading scholars in the field, and contemporary academic debates published in reputed platforms.
The review includes both classical Indian treatises (such as the Upanishads, Nāṭyaśāstra, CharakaSamhitā, and TaittirīyaUpaniṣad) and modern scholarly interpretations and critiques. Priority has been given to literature published in the last two decades, while also engaging with foundational works from earlier periods that remain influential in shaping current discourse. A thematic analysis method was used to categorize literature into coherent sections that reflect philosophical foundations, historical developments, pedagogical methods, and contemporary relevance.
2.0 Conceptual Foundations
2.1 Defining the Indian Knowledge System (IKS)
The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is a term that encapsulates a wide array of indigenous intellectual, cultural, scientific, and philosophical traditions that have been cultivated and transmitted in the Indian subcontinent over several millennia. It is not a singular or monolithic entity but rather a constellation of interrelated domains encompassing metaphysics, epistemology, logic (nyāya), ethics (nīti), medicine (āyurveda), astronomy (jyotiṣa), architecture (vāstuśāstra), performing arts (nāṭyaśāstra), agriculture, linguistics (vyākaraṇa), and spirituality (adhyātmavidyā) (Rao, 2012; Radhakrishnan, 1999).
Unlike modern compartmentalized disciplines, IKS is characterized by its integrative and holistic orientation. Knowledge was not merely an intellectual exercise but a means to realize the deeper purpose of life—mokṣa (liberation), dharma (righteousness), and artha (material well-being). It is also rooted in experiential learning and context-specificity, acknowledging the inseparable relationship between the knower, the known, and the means of knowing (Patwardhan, 2005). Central to IKS is the recognition of multiple ways of knowing—including empirical, intuitive, scriptural, and contemplative methods—providing a nuanced alternative to positivist and reductionist approaches.
2.2 Core Principles of Indigenous Pedagogies
Indigenous pedagogies within the Indian Knowledge System are underpinned by a set of core principles that distinguish them from modern Western educational paradigms. Foremost among these is the guru-śiṣyaparamparā, a pedagogical model based on the intimate and ethical relationship between teacher and student. In this system, learning was personalized, oral, dialogical, and deeply embedded in lived experience. The teacher was not merely an instructor but a moral exemplar, guiding the student not just in knowledge acquisition but in the cultivation of character and consciousness (Sharma, 2008).
Another hallmark of indigenous pedagogy is its emphasis on learning by doing (kriyā), observation (darśana), and contemplation (nididhyāsana). Education was not detached from the rhythms of everyday life; it was often embedded in rituals, stories, chants, crafts, and communal activities, reflecting an embodied approach to cognition and knowledge (Mahapatra, 2018). This contrasts with the often abstract and decontextualized learning seen in modern formal education.
2.3 Comparative Perspectives: Western vs. Indigenous Knowledge Frameworks
The contrast between Western and indigenous knowledge systems is not merely epistemological but also cultural, historical, and political. Western epistemology, shaped by Enlightenment rationalism and scientific empiricism, tends to favor linear logic, objectivity, and a separation between subject and object. Knowledge is often treated as a universal commodity, transferable across contexts irrespective of cultural grounding (Smith, 1999; Battiste, 2002). This worldview underpins much of modern education, which is standardized, measurable, and heavily reliant on textual authority and formal assessment.
In contrast, indigenous knowledge systems like IKS are deeply localized, relational, and contextual. They view knowledge as inherently situated—emerging from the lived realities of people in specific ecological, cultural, and spiritual contexts. The knower is not an impartial observer but an active participant whose consciousness and moral orientation affect the validity of knowledge itself (Sen, 2005). This participatory and subjective nature of indigenous knowing challenges the Cartesian dualism and positivist assumptions that have dominated global knowledge hierarchies.
3. Historical Evolution of Indigenous Pedagogies in India
The educational landscape of India has been shaped over centuries by a series of dynamic and diverse pedagogical traditions rooted in philosophical depth, cultural specificity, and spiritual aspiration. Long before the advent of colonial or modern systems of formal education, India fostered highly developed models of knowledge transmission that were embedded in community life, supported by strong teacher–student relationships, and oriented toward holistic human development. This section traces the major phases in the evolution of indigenous pedagogies, from the ancient Gurukula system to the monastic institutions of Buddhism, the syncretic educational spaces of medieval India, and finally the transformative impact of colonial intervention.
3.1 Gurukula System: Philosophy, Structure, and Practices
The Gurukula system represents one of the oldest and most foundational forms of indigenous education in India. Derived from the Sanskrit word "guru" (teacher) and "kula" (family or household), the Gurukula was not just a place of instruction but a living, learning community where the student (śiṣya) resided with the teacher and engaged in lifelong learning. This system flourished during the Vedic and post-Vedic periods and emphasized moral education, spiritual inquiry, and the pursuit of vidyā (true knowledge), going far beyond the transmission of utilitarian information (Radhakrishnan, 1999; Altekar, 2009).
The pedagogical philosophy of the Gurukula system centered on the guru-śiṣya relationship, which was considered sacred and transformative. Learning was imparted orally through memorization, chanting, and dialogic interaction, often guided by the student’s aptitude and temperament. The curriculum included a broad range of subjects such as Vedas, grammar, logic, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, and statecraft—often taught in an interdisciplinary manner. Significantly, the mode of learning was contemplative and immersive, encouraging students to internalize knowledge through disciplined practice (sādhana), humility, and service to the teacher (Patwardhan, 2005).
4. Epistemological and Philosophical Foundations
Indian educational traditions are deeply grounded in rich philosophical and epistemological frameworks that have shaped not only the content of knowledge but also the manner of its acquisition and transmission. Unlike modern education, which often compartmentalizes disciplines and privileges rational empiricism, Indian knowledge systems offer a more integrative, experiential, and ethical approach. The foundational theories of knowledge (pramāṇa), the holistic blending of diverse disciplines, and the vital role of oral traditions and memory together form the epistemic bedrock of indigenous pedagogies in India.
4.1 Theories of Knowledge (Pramāṇa) in Indian Philosophy
At the heart of Indian epistemology lies the concept of pramāṇa—the means or instruments through which valid knowledge (pramā) is acquired. Classical Indian philosophical systems, both orthodox (āstika) and heterodox (nāstika), developed sophisticated taxonomies and debates around pramāṇa, reflecting a deep commitment to epistemic rigor. The six commonly recognized pramāṇas across these traditions are: perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), comparison (upamāna), verbal testimony (śabda), postulation (arthāpatti), and non-cognition or negation (anupalabdhi) (Matilal, 1986).
Each school of thought—be it Nyāya, Vedānta, Sāṃkhya, Buddhism, or Jainism—developed nuanced interpretations of these instruments. For example, the Nyāya school emphasized logical reasoning and empirical observation, while the Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta schools placed high value on śabdapramāṇa—the authority of scriptural testimony, particularly the Vedas. The Buddhist epistemologists like Dignāga and Dharmakīrti advanced a two-fold classification, privileging perception and inference, but refined both to include mental and meditative insight (Ganeri, 2001).
4.2 Holistic Learning and Integration of Arts, Sciences, and Ethics
Indian pedagogy traditionally resists the binary distinctions between arts and sciences, or between intellectual and moral development. The knowledge systems function on the principle of samanvaya (harmonious integration), where subjects such as logic, mathematics, linguistics, medicine, music, and ethics were interwoven in both content and method. This integrated model stands in contrast to the siloed disciplines of modern academia and promotes a broader conception of learning as an unfolding of one’s full potential (puruṣārtha)—intellectually, morally, emotionally, and spiritually (Rao, 2012).
Take for example the Śilpaśāstra and Nāṭyaśāstra, ancient treatises that demonstrate how art, architecture, music, and performance were not treated as mere aesthetics but as vehicles of cosmic principles and ethical education. Similarly, Ayurveda was not only a science of health but also a philosophy of life, closely tied to ethical conduct and ecological balance. Mathematics and astronomy were developed alongside metaphysics and ritual sciences, illustrating an educational ethos that celebrated complexity and synthesis rather than simplification (Pingree, 1978).
4.3 The Role of Oral Traditions and Memory in Knowledge Transmission
A striking feature of the Indian Knowledge System is its reliance on oral transmission as the primary mode of education for centuries. Long before the widespread use of written texts, India developed elaborate methods for preserving and transmitting complex bodies of knowledge through speech, sound, and memory. This was particularly true for the Vedic tradition, where sacred texts were recited with remarkable phonetic precision and passed down verbatim across generations (Staal, 1986).
Orality was not simply a constraint of pre-literate society; it was a deliberate epistemological choice that underscored the importance of embodied cognition. The act of listening (śravaṇa), reflection (manana), and deep internalization (nididhyāsana) formed the triad of learning, emphasizing that true knowledge must pass through the stages of reception, contemplation, and realization. Mnemonics, rhythmic recitation, ritual performance, and storytelling were some of the pedagogical tools employed to encode and transfer knowledge (Pollock, 2001).
5. Knowledge Domains within the Indian Knowledge System (IKS)
The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) encompasses a vast, interconnected constellation of disciplines developed through centuries of rigorous intellectual, empirical, and spiritual inquiry. These domains reflect not only scientific and artistic achievements but also the civilizational values of harmony, sustainability, and ethical living. This section explores four major categories of knowledge—scientific, linguistic, artistic, and ecological—each of which showcases the sophistication, originality, and relevance of indigenous Indian thought.
5.1 Ayurveda, Astronomy, Mathematics, and Metallurgy
India’s contributions to scientific thought are most prominently visible in the domains of medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and metallurgy, which were developed through methodical observation, documentation, and innovation.
Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of medicine, is more than a set of therapeutic techniques—it is a holistic science of life. Rooted in the texts like the CharakaSamhitā and SuśrutaSamhitā, Ayurveda emphasizes the balance of the doṣas (vāta, pitta, kapha), and treats health as a state of dynamic equilibrium between the body, mind, and environment (Zysk, 1991). In astronomy, ancient Indian scholars like Āryabhaṭa, Varāhamihira, and Bhāskara II offered precise calculations of planetary motions, eclipses, and time cycles. Āryabhaṭa’sĀryabhaṭīya (5th century CE) introduced the concept of the earth's rotation on its axis and provided accurate trigonometric tables (Pingree, 1978). These contributions were not only theoretical but had practical applications in calendrical science, ritual timings, and navigation.
Mathematics in India was both abstract and applied. The decimal place value system, the concept of zero as a numeral, and early formulations of algebra, geometry, and combinatorics were explored extensively by mathematicians like Brahmagupta, Mahāvīra, and later, the Kerala School (Joseph, 2000). Metallurgy, too, was a field of great accomplishment. The Iron Pillar of Delhi, which has remained rust-free for over a millennium, attests to advanced knowledge in iron extraction and alloy production.
5.2 Language, Grammar, and Logic (Vyākaraṇa and Nyāya)
Indian scholarship on language and logic has long been acknowledged as both meticulous and metaphysically profound. Vyākaraṇa, or Sanskrit grammar, reached its zenith with the seminal work of Pāṇini in his Aṣṭādhyāyī (circa 4th century BCE). This treatise, composed of nearly 4,000 aphorisms (sūtras), established a formal grammar system that anticipated many features of modern linguistics, including generative grammar and rule-based processing (Cardona, 1997). Pāṇini’s work influenced not only subsequent Indian linguistic theories but also sparked interest among modern Western linguists, including Noam Chomsky.
Nyāya, the school of logic and epistemology, developed a systematic approach to reasoning and argumentation. The NyāyaSūtras by Gautama (c. 2nd century BCE) introduced tools for debate, such as the five-part syllogism, and clarified concepts of perception, inference, and verbal testimony. Nyāya thinkers such as Udayana and Gaṅgeśa further expanded its analytical rigor, contributing to the “Navya-Nyāya” (New Logic) movement (Matilal, 1986). These traditions were not purely theoretical—they were applied in debates across metaphysics, ethics, medicine, and law, shaping a culture of critical inquiry.
5.3 Arts, Music, and Architecture (Nāṭyaśāstra, Śilpaśāstra, etc.)
The Indian Knowledge System considers the arts not merely as forms of entertainment, but as modes of spiritual expression and social transformation. This is most clearly reflected in the Nāṭyaśāstra, attributed to Bharata (circa 200 BCE–200 CE), which is a comprehensive treatise on dramaturgy, music, dance, and aesthetics. The text outlines the theory of rasa (emotional essence) and bhāva (expression), articulating how performance can elevate consciousness and evoke inner harmony (Vatsyayan, 1996).
Indian classical music, both Hindustani and Carnatic, developed complex systems of melody (rāga) and rhythm (tāla), often tied to specific times of the day, seasons, or emotional states. These systems were pedagogically transmitted through oral tradition (guru-śiṣyaparamparā), ensuring continuity across generations while allowing improvisation and individual expression.
5.4 Environmental and Agricultural Wisdom
The Indian Knowledge System is also deeply ecological in its orientation. The traditional understanding of the environment is rooted in the principle of interconnectedness—between humans, animals, plants, and the cosmic order. Ancient texts such as the Vṛkṣāyurveda (science of plant life) and Kṛṣi-Parāśara (agricultural manual) offer detailed insights into soil science, crop rotation, rainfall prediction, and pest management, all aligned with local climates and seasonal rhythms (Mazid, 2013).
Traditional Indian agricultural practices emphasized biodiversity, seed preservation, and organic techniques. Practices like mixed cropping, the use of panchagavya (a mixture of five cow-derived substances), and water harvesting systems such as stepwells and tank irrigation illustrate a deep empirical and ethical understanding of nature. These systems were sustainable, community-driven, and adaptive—qualities increasingly sought in contemporary global agriculture.
6. Pedagogical Methods in Traditional Systems
The pedagogical foundations of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) reflect a nuanced understanding of human development, cognitive growth, and ethical formation. Traditional Indian education was not simply about the transmission of content; it was about the cultivation of wisdom, character, and holistic awareness. These systems emphasized personalized learning, dialogue, experiential understanding, and integrative thinking. In contrast to the impersonal, standardized modes prevalent in contemporary education, IKS pedagogy was deeply relational, context-sensitive, and spiritually informed.
6.1 Role of the Guru–ŚiṣyaParamparā
The cornerstone of traditional Indian pedagogy was the Guru–ŚiṣyaParamparā, a unique teacher-disciple lineage that served as both an educational model and a philosophical ideal. Unlike modern classroom structures, this relationship was intimate, immersive, and transformative. The guru was not just a conveyor of knowledge but a moral exemplar, spiritual guide, and life mentor. The śiṣya (disciple) was expected to approach the teacher with humility (śraddhā), obedience, and a readiness to undergo rigorous training over extended periods (Radhakrishnan, 1951).
This mode of pedagogy fostered a deep bond that extended beyond intellectual instruction to include emotional, ethical, and spiritual development. Learning often occurred in informal settings—forests, hermitages (āśramas), or temple courtyards—away from worldly distractions. The teacher would tailor instruction according to the student’s aptitude (adhikāra), allowing for flexibility and personalization in pace and content.
6.2 Dialogic Methods (Socratic-style Inquiry: Sañvāda)
Traditional Indian pedagogy also placed high value on dialogue (sañvāda or vādā) as a method of inquiry and discovery. Dialogic teaching featured prominently in the Upaniṣads, where knowledge unfolded through questioning, contemplation, and dialectical engagement. Unlike rote memorization, sañvāda fostered critical thinking, listening, and mutual respect. For instance, in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and ChāndogyaUpaniṣads, we find sophisticated discussions between students and teachers that probe the nature of self, reality, and knowledge through layered questioning (Olivelle, 1998).
These dialogic traditions bear resemblance to the Socratic method of the West, but with a deeper metaphysical orientation. Rather than merely deconstructing assumptions, sañvāda sought to guide the learner toward higher states of understanding and self-realization. The Buddhist tradition of vāda and the Jaina system of anekāntavāda (many-sidedness of truth) further enriched the Indian culture of intellectual pluralism and debate.
6.3 Experiential and Contextual Learning
A defining feature of indigenous Indian pedagogy was its experiential orientation. Learning was not abstracted from life; it was rooted in lived reality and practical engagement. Disciplines such as Ayurveda, sculpture, agriculture, and music were learned not through passive lectures, but through observation, imitation, and sustained practice. Students acquired skills by living with their gurus, working alongside them, and embodying the principles they learned (Mitra, 2002).
This contextual learning was highly adaptive to geographical, cultural, and ecological settings. For example, in tribal communities, ecological knowledge was passed down through participatory rituals and seasonal activities, ensuring its relevance to local biodiversity and resource management. Similarly, in temple schools and craft guilds, students learned architecture or metalwork by participating in actual projects under the supervision of experienced artisans.
6.4 Interdisciplinary and Integrated Approaches
Traditional Indian education never compartmentalized disciplines the way modern systems often do. The interdisciplinary ethos of IKS meant that a student of logic (Nyāya) also studied grammar (Vyākaraṇa), metaphysics (Vedānta), and medicine (Ayurveda) in relation to each other. The boundaries between śāstra (science), kāvya (poetics), and dhārma (ethics) were fluid, leading to a curriculum that emphasized integration over isolation (Rao, 2012).
For instance, in studying the Nāṭyaśāstra, one engaged not only with drama but also with music, dance, architecture, cosmology, and emotional psychology. Similarly, an Ayurvedic practitioner was also expected to understand philosophy, alchemy, and ritual practice. This holistic approach cultivated not just specialized professionals but well-rounded individuals capable of connecting insights across domains.
7. Contemporary Relevance and Resurgence
In recent years, there has been a marked resurgence of interest in the Indian Knowledge System (IKS), driven by a confluence of policy support, cultural revivalism, and academic re-engagement. The contemporary relevance of IKS stems from its potential to offer alternative paradigms of learning, sustainability, and human well-being in an increasingly complex and fragmented global landscape. Recognizing this, Indian educational policy has begun to foreground IKS as a legitimate and valuable source of knowledge, aiming to integrate it into mainstream pedagogical frameworks while preserving its authenticity and depth.
7.1 Integration of IKS in NEP 2020 and Educational Policy
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 marks a watershed moment for IKS in modern India. For the first time in decades, the policy explicitly acknowledges the value of indigenous knowledge systems and advocates for their integration into curricula at all levels of education. It emphasizes the inclusion of ancient Indian languages, philosophical traditions, and disciplinary knowledge such as Ayurveda, Yoga, and classical arts as part of a holistic and multidisciplinary learning environment (NEP, 2020).
The policy outlines the establishment of an Indian Knowledge Systems Division under the Ministry of Education to systematically research, document, and promote IKS. It also encourages the use of mother tongues and regional languages as mediums of instruction, reflecting the multilingual and diverse nature of traditional Indian pedagogy. Furthermore, by promoting value-based education rooted in ethical and ecological consciousness, NEP 2020 seeks to align modern learning with the deeper civilizational ethos of India (Kumar & Singh, 2021).
7.2 Reviving Indigenous Pedagogies in Modern Institutions
Several academic and cultural institutions across India have begun actively reviving and institutionalizing indigenous pedagogies. Universities such as Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), and the Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) now offer dedicated programs, research centers, and fellowships focused on IKS. New institutions like the Indian Institute of Education and Research in Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IIERIKS) have been established to explore the epistemology, pedagogy, and application of traditional knowledge in a contemporary context.
This revival is not limited to textual or philosophical traditions. Indian classical music, dance, ayurvedic medicine, and environmental wisdom are being taught using traditional guru-śiṣya methods in a wide range of institutions, highlighting the adaptive capacity of these ancient forms to contemporary needs.
7.3 Challenges of Standardization and Accreditation
While the resurgence of IKS is promising, it also raises complex challenges of standardization, recognition, and accreditation. Traditional knowledge systems are often oral, context-specific, and non-linear, which conflicts with the formal structures of modern education that emphasize uniformity, codification, and assessment metrics.
One of the pressing concerns is how to evaluate knowledge that has been traditionally transmitted through apprenticeship, oral narration, and spiritual practice. For instance, how should a scholar trained in Vedic chanting or Ayurveda through non-formal systems be accredited within the modern university framework? Additionally, the diversity within IKS—across regional, linguistic, and sectarian lines—poses a risk of oversimplification or homogenization in efforts to mainstream it.
7.4 Role of Digital Tools and Open Knowledge Platforms
Digital technology offers unprecedented possibilities for preserving, disseminating, and innovating within IKS. Projects such as the Bharatavani Project, Digital Library of India, and Sanskrit Documents Archive have digitized thousands of manuscripts and classical texts, making them accessible to researchers and the public alike. Platforms like JSTOR India, Sahapedia, and Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) host multimedia content on various knowledge domains—from oral epics and temple architecture to folk traditions and linguistic resources.
Online learning environments, including Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and YouTube-based instruction, have enabled the spread of Sanskrit education, Vedic mathematics, Indian philosophy, and music pedagogy to a global audience. The gurukula model has also adapted to the virtual world, with teachers conducting regular discourses, chanting sessions, and artistic performances via Zoom and Google Meet.
At the same time, AI tools and semantic technologies are being employed to annotate and analyze ancient texts, revealing new patterns and interpretations. These tools, if used ethically and sensitively, can bridge the gap between traditional wisdom and contemporary research methodologies.
8. Critical Perspectives and Challenges
While the resurgence of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is a welcome and long-overdue corrective to epistemic marginalization, a nuanced and critical engagement is necessary to ensure that the revival is both ethical and inclusive. Like any historical tradition, IKS is not without its complexities and contradictions. Its reinterpretation in the contemporary context must be undertaken with scholarly rigor, cultural sensitivity, and a commitment to social justice. This section explores key challenges and contested terrains in the revival of IKS, focusing on issues of authenticity, inclusivity, and epistemological integration.
8.1 Issues of Authenticity, Sanskritization, and Accessibility
One of the foremost challenges in engaging with IKS today is the question of authenticity—what constitutes the “real” or “original” Indian knowledge system, and who gets to define it? Many IKS revivals tend to focus heavily on Sanskrit texts and elite Brahmanical traditions, often overlooking the vernacular, tribal, and folk knowledge systems that have flourished alongside the classical corpus. This process, sometimes referred to as Sanskritization, privileges certain canonical forms while marginalizing others (Chakrabarty, 2000).
For instance, while Vedic and Upanishadic traditions are celebrated, equally rich knowledge repositories found in regional practices—like Bhakti poetry, Siddha medicine, tribal cosmologies, and oral epics—are frequently underrepresented. This tendency can create a narrow view of IKS that excludes the full breadth of India’s civilizational knowledge landscape. Authenticity, in this context, must be understood not as a return to a static past but as a dynamic engagement with plural traditions, each with its own authority and relevance.
8.2 Gender, Caste, and Inclusivity within Traditional Frameworks
Another significant critique of traditional Indian pedagogies and knowledge systems is their exclusionary nature, especially in terms of gender and caste. Historical evidence suggests that formal access to learning—particularly in the Vedic tradition—was often restricted to upper-caste males. Women, Dalits, and tribal communities were systematically denied entry into many domains of scriptural and scholarly education (Sharma, 2002).
While there are notable exceptions—such as the female philosophers Gargi and Maitreyi, and the contributions of Bhakti saints from marginalized backgrounds—these figures were often anomalies rather than the norm. Thus, romanticizing the past without addressing its structural inequities can inadvertently reinforce social hierarchies.
8.3 Tensions Between Traditional and Modern Epistemologies
The integration of IKS into contemporary education and research is also marked by epistemological tensions. Traditional Indian knowledge systems are often non-linear, intuitive, and holistic, placing emphasis on experiential learning, spiritual insight, and ethical cultivation. In contrast, modern scientific paradigms tend to prioritize objectivity, empirical validation, and compartmentalization (Nandy, 1987).
For instance, Ayurvedic principles such as tridosha or yogic concepts like prāṇa operate within metaphysical frameworks that are difficult to quantify using modern scientific tools. Similarly, the oral and performative nature of many traditional arts and sciences resists standardization, peer review, or replication—the cornerstones of contemporary academic validation.
This epistemic disjuncture creates challenges in integrating IKS with current educational structures. Skepticism from the mainstream academic community, both within India and globally, often stems from an inability to reconcile these differing modes of knowing. At the same time, uncritical acceptance of traditional knowledge without contextual analysis can lead to pseudoscientific claims and intellectual romanticism.
The resurgence of IKS must not merely be an act of cultural revival but a critical reclamation—one that honors tradition while addressing its exclusions and contradictions. A responsible engagement with IKS demands ongoing dialogue, ethical introspection, and a willingness to evolve, ensuring that these systems remain relevant, inclusive, and transformative in the contemporary world.
9. Future Directions and Research Gaps
As the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) continues to gain renewed attention in academic and policy circles, it is imperative to chart a clear path for future research and pedagogical innovation. While significant progress has been made in documenting and revitalizing various aspects of IKS, many avenues remain underexplored or inadequately integrated within contemporary scholarship. Addressing these gaps will not only deepen our understanding of India’s intellectual heritage but also enable the meaningful application of traditional wisdom in solving present-day challenges.
9.1 Emerging Research Trends in IKS and Pedagogy
Recent years have witnessed burgeoning interest in the interdisciplinary study of IKS, blending fields such as history, philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, and environmental science. Scholars are increasingly employing digital humanities tools to preserve manuscripts, decode ancient scripts, and analyze textual corpora with computational methods (Srinivas, 2021). Similarly, ethnographic research into living traditions—such as tribal ecological knowledge, oral storytelling, and craft practices—has opened new vistas for understanding the dynamic nature of indigenous pedagogies (Gupta, 2019).
Innovative pedagogical experiments that blend guru-śiṣya approaches with modern educational technologies are also emerging. Virtual gurukulas, online Sanskrit learning modules, and experiential workshops on Ayurveda and Yoga are expanding access while honoring the spirit of traditional modes of transmission.
9.2 Need for Interdisciplinary and Comparative Studies
Despite these advances, there remains a critical need for deeper interdisciplinary and comparative research. While IKS itself is inherently integrative, contemporary academic disciplines tend to operate in silos, limiting the full potential of indigenous knowledge. Collaborative research involving experts in natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities can help bridge epistemic divides and foster novel insights. For example, Ayurvedic principles could be investigated alongside modern pharmacology to develop integrative health models, or ancient agricultural practices examined for climate-resilient farming solutions (Kumar & Singh, 2022).
Comparative studies between Indian indigenous pedagogies and other traditional knowledge systems globally—such as Aboriginal Australian, Maori, or African indigenous epistemologies—could also illuminate universal patterns and unique features. Such cross-cultural dialogues can enrich pedagogical theory, challenge dominant paradigms, and promote global knowledge equity.
9.3 Suggested Areas for Further Inquiry
To unlock the transformative potential of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS), several critical areas call for in-depth and sustained scholarly inquiry. Foremost among these is the documentation and critical edition of regional and vernacular texts, many of which remain unpublished or inaccessible. Creating annotated and contextual editions, particularly in local languages, would allow for a more inclusive and representative academic engagement with IKS (Chattopadhyaya, 1986). Additionally, there is a growing need to engage with epistemological frameworks within IKS—especially the indigenous theories of knowledge (pramāṇa)—in dialogue with contemporary philosophies of science. Such efforts can clarify the unique ways in which traditional Indian thought structures inquiry, evidence, and truth (Sarukkai, 2012). Equally important is the exploration of gender, caste, and social inclusion. Much of the existing literature either overlooks or underrepresents the contributions and experiences of women, Dalits, and tribal communities within traditional knowledge systems.
Promising avenue lies in pedagogical innovation, particularly in how traditional learning methods—such as the guru–śiṣyaparamparā or dialogic techniques like sañvāda—can be integrated into modern classroom environments. This includes reimagining teacher training and curriculum development in ways that honor indigenous modes of knowing while meeting contemporary learning outcomes (Joshi &Patil, 2020). Moreover, in the face of today’s ecological challenges, IKS offers valuable insights into sustainability and environmental ethics, particularly in domains such as agroforestry, water conservation, and biodiversity stewardship (Gupta, 2019). The creation and expansion of digital and multimedia repositories is also essential, enabling the preservation and broader dissemination of traditional knowledge through interactive platforms and open-access archives (Srinivas, 2021).
10. Conclusion
This review paper has traced the expansive intellectual, pedagogical, and cultural landscape of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS), offering a comprehensive analysis of its historical roots, philosophical foundations, knowledge domains, and contemporary resurgence. From the sacred learning traditions of the gurukula and Buddhist viharas to the scientific brilliance of Ayurveda, mathematics, and astronomy, IKS emerges as a deeply integrated knowledge ecosystem characterized by its emphasis on holistic learning, ethical living, and experiential wisdom. Central to these traditions is an indigenous pedagogy grounded in dialogic methods, oral transmission, interdisciplinary approaches, and a deep reverence for the teacher–disciple relationship.Moreover, the paper has illuminated the tensions and challenges that shape the revival of IKS today. Issues of authenticity, inclusivity, accessibility, and epistemological compatibility with modern systems remain unresolved. Despite these concerns, the resurgence of interest in IKS—particularly through educational reforms, digital technologies, and community-driven initiatives—signals a promising shift toward reclaiming indigenous narratives in Indian education and research.
10.1 Reflections on the Revival and Integration of IKS
The contemporary revival of IKS is not merely a nostalgic return to the past but a necessary act of epistemic justice. It is a response to centuries of colonial erasure and the dominance of Western frameworks that have long marginalized non-European knowledge traditions. The resurgence of IKS, particularly through policy initiatives like India’s National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, reflects a growing recognition that indigenous wisdom can offer unique insights into sustainable living, ethical reasoning, and holistic human development (NEP, 2020).
However, integrating IKS into the modern educational matrix must be a thoughtful and inclusive process. It requires more than institutional endorsement; it calls for curricular innovation, teacher re-skilling, and scholarly rigor in interpreting traditional knowledge. A critical lens must remain active throughout this process to ensure that the revival of IKS is not selectively romanticized or appropriated, but rather celebrated in its plurality, diversity, and evolving relevance. Engagement with IKS must be grounded in critical inquiry, democratic access, and cultural sensitivity.
10.2 Implications for Policy, Practice, and Pedagogical Reform
The findings of this review highlight several important implications for educational policy and practice. Firstly, there is a crucial need to systematically incorporate Indigenous and Local Knowledge Systems (IKS) into national curricula in a meaningful way, avoiding superficial representation. This involves revising textbooks, creating localized learning materials, and embedding indigenous epistemologies into assessment methods. Teacher education programs must also be reoriented to provide educators with both philosophical understanding and pedagogical strategies that enable them to teach IKS effectively. Policy frameworks should foster interdisciplinary and collaborative research on IKS by supporting funding and institutions dedicated to this purpose. Establishing research centers, digital repositories, and community networks can facilitate knowledge sharing across generations and disciplines, nurturing a vibrant ecosystem of indigenous knowledge transmission.
Pedagogical reforms inspired by IKS should prioritize inclusivity and social justice. This entails giving prominence to marginalized voices within indigenous traditions, including women, Dalits, Adivasis, and linguistic minorities, and creating opportunities for these communities to participate actively in shaping and disseminating IKS. Such measures are not only ethically imperative but also crucial for maintaining the authenticity and vitality of indigenous knowledge systems. The Indian Knowledge System possesses the potential to be a dynamic force—not merely a relic of the past but an evolving framework that can influence future education, sustainability, and global understanding.Honoring its philosophical depth, fostering pedagogical innovation, and respecting its civilizational wisdom, India and the world can move towards a more pluralistic and humane knowledge order. Achieving this will require deep engagement characterized by intellectual honesty, institutional support, and a shared vision for holistic human development.
References